Changes

===== Vitamin K =====

===== Vitamin K =====

# '''Discovery'''. Vitamin K was discovered in 1935. A doctor in Scandinavia found that this substance was necessary for normal clotting of the blood.

# '''Discovery'''. Vitamin K was discovered in 1935. A doctor in Scandinavia found that this substance was necessary for normal clotting of the blood.

# Measurement. Amounts of vitamin K are expressed as micrograms, one millionth of a gram.

# '''Measurement'''. Amounts of vitamin K are expressed as micrograms, one millionth of a gram.

# Chemistry.VitaminKisthefourthofthefat-solublevitamins(othersareA,DandE).It is easily destroyed by light but is stable to heat.

# '''Chemistry'''. Vitamin K is the fourth of the fat-soluble vitamins(others are A, D and E).It is easily destroyed by light but is stable to heat.

# Physiology. Vitamin K is a vitamin that does not need to be supplied in food. Bacteria which live in the human intestine are fully capable of producing the vitamin K needed for normal functioning of the bloodclotting apparatus. Vitamin K, being fat-soluble, is absorbed with fat and as a fat and therefore requires the presence of bile salts.

# '''Physiology'''. Vitamin K is a vitamin that does not need to be supplied in food. Bacteria which live in the human intestine are fully capable of producing the vitamin K needed for normal functioning of the blood clotting apparatus. Vitamin K, being fat-soluble, is absorbed with fat and as a fat and therefore requires the presence of bile salts.

# Functions. The liver produces certain organic compounds needed for the bloodclotting process. Vitamin K is required by the liver for production of these compounds.

# '''Functions'''. The liver produces certain organic compounds needed for the blood clotting process. Vitamin K is required by the liver for production of these compounds.

# Requirements.AdietaryrequirementhasneverbeensetforvitaminKbecauseitissup- plied by intestinal bacteria. A deficiency of vitamin K is unknown.

# '''Requirements'''. A dietary requirement has never been set for vitamin K because it is supplied by intestinal bacteria. A deficiency of vitamin K is unknown.

# Sources.DietarysourcesofvitaminKarekaleandothergreenleafyvegetables,cabbage and cauliflower.

# '''Sources'''. Dietary sources of vitamin K are kale and other green leafy vegetables, cabbage and cauliflower.

# Effects of deficiency. A deficiency of vitamin K results in failure of the bloodclotting system, resulting in hemorrhage. This is found only in premature infants of mothers tak- ing anti-bloodclotting drugs, in people with intestinal malabsorption and patients on sul- fa drugs and antibiotics (which kill the intestinal bacteria that produce vitamin K). In- testinal malabsorption can occur as a result of liver or gallbladder disease, severe diar- rhea, colitis and some other conditions; it can result in deficiency of any essential nutri- ent.

# '''Effects of deficiency'''. A deficiency of vitamin K results in failure of the blood clotting system, resulting in hemorrhage. This is found only in premature infants of mothers taking anti-blood-clotting drugs, in people with intestinal malabsorption and patients on sulfa drugs and antibiotics (which kill the intestinal bacteria that produce vitamin K). Intestinal malabsorption can occur as a result of liver or gallbladder disease, severe diarrhea, colitis and some other conditions; it can result in deficiency of any essential nutrient.

# Effects of excess. The effects of excess vitamin K are unknown.  

# '''Effects of excess'''. The effects of excess vitamin K are unknown.

==== The Water-Soluble Vitamins ====

==== The Water-Soluble Vitamins ====

===== Vitamin C =====

===== Vitamin C =====

# Discovery. Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid, was isolated chemically in 1932 at the University of Pittsburgh. Feeding this organic compound was found to prevent scurvy. Almost 200 years previous to the chemical identification of vitamin C, Dr. James Lind, a British physician, found that scurvy would not occur if citrus fruits were con- sumed.

# '''Discovery'''. Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid, was isolated chemically in 1932 at the University of Pittsburgh. Feeding this organic compound was found to prevent scurvy. Almost 200 years previous to the chemical identification of vitamin C, Dr. James Lind, a British physician, found that scurvy would not occur if citrus fruits were consumed.

# Measurement. Amounts of vitamin C are expressed in milligrams, 1/1000th of a gram.

# '''Measurement'''. Amounts of vitamin C are expressed in milligrams, 1/1000th of a gram.

# Chemistry.VitaminCandalltheBvitaminsdissolveinwaterbutnotinfataswithA, D, E and K. Vitamin C is more easily destroyed than any of the other vitamins. Heat, light, copper, and iron are especially destructive.

# '''Chemistry'''. Vitamin C and all the B vitamins dissolve in water but not in fat as with A, D, E and K. Vitamin C is more easily destroyed than any of the other vitamins. Heat, light, copper, and iron are especially destructive.

# Physiology.MostformsoflifesynthesizethevitaminCtheyneedandthusdonotneed  a dietary source. However, humans do not synthesize this vitamin. When vitamin C is supplied to the body, the tissues quickly become saturated and excesses are eliminated in the urine.

# '''Physiology'''. Most forms of life synthesize the vitamin C they need and thus do not need a dietary source. However, humans do not synthesize this vitamin. When vitamin C is supplied to the body, the tissues quickly become saturated and excesses are eliminated in the urine.

# Functions. The body uses vitamin C in many important ways. The main one is in the formation of connective tissue, the underlying structure of bone, cartilage, blood vessel walls and most other tissues. Without vitamin C, the body cannot rebuild injured tissue.  There are many other important roles of vitamin C: It is needed for normal cellular metabolism and enzyme function, for the normal metabolism of iron and folic acid (a B vitamin) and for the formation of adrenal gland hormones.

# '''Functions'''. The body uses vitamin C in many important ways. The main one is in the formation of connective tissue, the underlying structure of bone, cartilage, blood vessel walls and most other tissues. Without vitamin C, the body cannot rebuild injured tissue.  There are many other important roles of vitamin C: It is needed for normal cellular metabolism and enzyme function, for the normal metabolism of iron and folic acid (a B vitamin) and for the formation of adrenal gland hormones.

# Requirements.ThereismuchcontroversyabouttherequirementforvitaminC.The recommended dietary allowance is no more than l/10th of a gram, yet Linus Pauling states that we need 100 times that amount. Scientific evidence clearly states that l/10th of a gram, 100 milligrams, is more than enough. Some evidence indicates that slightly more than this amount may be desirable. On a Hygienic diet, with its great abundance of raw fruits and vegetables, it is easy to get over 500 milligrams per day. There is certainly no need for supplements, despite the allegations of Dr. Pauling.

# '''Requirements'''. There is much controversy about the requirement for vitamin C. The recommended dietary allowance is no more than 1/10th of a gram, yet Linus Pauling states that we need 100 times that amount. Scientific evidence clearly states that 1/10th of a gram,100 milligrams, is more than enough. Some evidence indicates that slightly more than this amount may be desirable. On a Hygienic diet, with its great abundance of raw fruits and vegetables, it is easy to get over 500 milligrams per day. There is certainly no need for supplements, despite the allegations of Dr. Pauling.

# Sources.VitaminCissuppliedinfruitsandvegetables,especiallycitrusfruits,tomatoes and bell peppers. Other foods also contain small amounts of this vitamin.

# '''Sources'''. Vitamin C is supplied in fruits and vegetables, especially citrus fruits, tomatoes and bell peppers. Other foods also contain small amounts of this vitamin.

# Effectsofdeficiency.AdeficiencyofvitaminCresultsinpoorconnectivetissuestruc- ture. Symptoms include joint pain, irritability, growth retardation, anemia, shortness of breath, poor wound healing, bleeding of gums and pinpoint hemorrhages. If the diet con- tains enough vitamin C and these symptoms still develop, causes other than vitamin C deficiency must be searched for. Taking large amounts of vitamin C for diseases which are not the result of a vitamin C deficiency may alleviate symptoms but will not remove the cause of the problem.

# Effects of deficiency. A deficiency of vitamin C results in poor connective tissue structure. Symptoms include joint pain, irritability, growth retardation, anemia, shortness of breath, poor wound healing, bleeding of gums and pinpoint hemorrhages. If the diet contains enough vitamin C and these symptoms still develop, causes other than vitamin C deficiency must be searched for. Taking large amounts of vitamin C for diseases which are not the result of a vitamin C deficiency may alleviate symptoms but will not remove the cause of the problem.

# Effectsofexcess.ExcessvitaminC,eventhoughwater-solubleandsonotstoredinlarge amounts in the body, can be harmful to your health. Problems include destruction of red blood cells; irritation of the intestinal lining; kidney stone formation; interference with iron, copper, vitamin A and bone mineral metabolism; interference with the reproductive tract, causing infertility and fetal death; diabetes; and, believe it or not, scurvy. Intake of excess amounts of vitamin C, as with most vitamins, is only possible when pills or crystals are taken.

# Effects of excess. Excess vitamin C, even though water-soluble and so not stored in large amounts in the body, can be harmful to your health. Problems include destruction of red blood cells; irritation of the intestinal lining; kidney stone formation; interference with iron, copper, vitamin A and bone mineral metabolism; interference with the reproductive tract, causing infertility and fetal death; diabetes; and, believe it or not, scurvy. Intake of excess amounts of vitamin C, as with most vitamins, is only possible when pills or crystals are taken.

===== Vitamin B1 =====

===== Vitamin B1 =====

# Discovery.TheexistenceofvitaminB1,alsoknownasthiamine,wasfirsttheorizedin 1897 by a Dutch doctor who found that eating polished rice would result in a serious dis- ease called beriberi. When unpolished and unrefined rice was eaten, however, beriberi did not develop. In the 1920s and 1930s, thiamine was chemically isolated from rice bran.

# '''Discovery'''. The existence of vitamin B1, also known as thiamine, was first theorized in 1897 by a Dutch doctor who found that eating polished rice would result in a serious dis- ease called beriberi. When unpolished and unrefined rice was eaten, however, beriberi did not develop. In the 1920s and 1930s, thiamine was chemically isolated from rice bran.

# Measurement.AmountsofvitaminB1areexpressedinmilligrams(mg),1/1000thofa gram, or micro-grams (meg), 1/millionth of a gram.

# '''Measurement'''. Amounts of vitamin B1 are expressed in milligrams(mg),1/1000th of a gram, or micro-grams (meg), 1/millionth of a gram.

# Chemistry. Vitamin B1 is readily destroyed in the cooking process.

# '''Chemistry'''. Vitamin B1 is readily destroyed in the cooking process.

# Physiology and functions. This important vitamin plays a crucial role in the body’s energy-producing processes. In the body, when glucose is burned in the cells, energy is produced. This energy is stored when an organic substance named ATP is produced. Vi-  tamin B1 is needed for the formation of ATP.

# '''Physiology and functions'''. This important vitamin plays a crucial role in the body’s energy-producing processes. In the body, when glucose is burned in the cells, energy is produced. This energy is stored when an organic substance named ATP is produced. Vitamin B1 is needed for the formation of ATP.

# Requirements.TherequirementforvitaminB1isapproximately1/2mgdailyforinfants and children, 1-1.5 mg daily for adults.

# '''Requirements'''. The requirement for vitamin B1 is approximately 1/2mg daily for infants and children, 1-1.5 mg daily for adults.

# Sources. If mainly fruits and vegetables are eaten, as we recommend, significant  amounts of vitamin B1 will be supplied. Other sources are nuts, seeds, sprouted legumes and sprouted grains. When grains are refined, much of the vitamin B1 (and other vita- mins) is lost.

# '''Sources'''. If mainly fruits and vegetables are eaten, as we recommend, significant  amounts of vitamin B1 will be supplied. Other sources are nuts, seeds, sprouted legumes and sprouted grains. When grains are refined, much of the vitamin B1 (and other vita- mins) is lost.

# Effects of Deficiency. A deficiency of vitamin B1 results in serious breakdown of cel- lular metabolism. Manifestations of this breakdown include fatigue, emotional upsets, appetite loss, weakness, vomiting and abdominal pain, heart failure and nervous system destruction (generalized weakness and/or paralysis occur). Again, it is essential to note that there are many other causes of these problems. If the diet contains enough vitamin B1, these problems will not be helped by getting more of this vitamin.

# '''Effects of Deficiency'''. A deficiency of vitamin B1 results in serious breakdown of cellular metabolism. Manifestations of this breakdown include fatigue, emotional upsets, appetite loss, weakness, vomiting and abdominal pain, heart failure and nervous system destruction (generalized weakness and/or paralysis occur). Again, it is essential to note that there are many other causes of these problems. If the diet contains enough vitamin B1, these problems will not be helped by getting more of this vitamin.

# Effects of excess. The problems which develop when excess vitamin B1 is consumed have not been investigated. We can be sure, however, that problems will result when “megadoses” are ingested.

# '''Effects of excess'''. The problems which develop when excess vitamin B1 is consumed have not been investigated. We can be sure, however, that problems will result when “megadoses” are ingested.

===== Vitamin B2 =====

===== Vitamin B2 =====

# Discovery. In the late 1920s and early 1930s, scientists discovered a substance in food which the body needed for normal nervous system function. This substance was chemi- cally identified and named riboflavin, also called vitamin B2.

# '''Discovery'''. In the late 1920s and early 1930s, scientists discovered a substance in food which the body needed for normal nervous system function. This substance was chemically identified and named riboflavin, also called vitamin B2.

# Measurement. As with thiamine, amounts of riboflavin are expressed as milligrams or micrograms.

# '''Measurement'''. As with thiamine, amounts of riboflavin are expressed as milligrams or micrograms.

# Chemistry.VitaminB2ismorestabletoheatthanvitaminB1,butitiseasilydestroyed by light.

# '''Chemistry'''. Vitamin B2 is more stable to heat than vitamin B1, but it is easily destroyed by light.

# Physiologyandfunctions.ThefunctionofvitaminB2ismuchthesameasB1,although neither vitamin can substitute for the other. Riboflavin is needed for the synthesis of ATP.

# '''Physiology and functions'''. The function of vitamin B2 is much the same as B1, although neither vitamin can substitute for the other. Riboflavin is needed for the synthesis of ATP.

# Requirements.Therequirementforriboflavinisaboutthesameasforthiamine.About 1/2 mg daily is needed by infants, and 1-1.5 mg per day is needed for older children and adults.

# '''Requirements'''. The requirement for riboflavin is about the same as for thiamine. About 1/2 mg daily is needed by infants, and 1-1.5 mg per day is needed for older children and adults.

# Sources. Riboflavin is supplied by green leafy vegetables, seeds and nuts.

# '''Sources'''. Riboflavin is supplied by green leafy vegetables, seeds and nuts.

# Effectsofdeficiency.SymptomsofavitaminB2deficiencyincludetheeyesbecoming sensitive to light, easy fatigue of the eyes, blurred vision, itching and soreness of the eyes, cracks in the skin at the corners of the mouth, purplish red appearance of the lips  and tongue, and eczema.

# '''Effects of deficiency'''. Symptoms of a vitamin B2 deficiency include the eyes becoming sensitive to light, easy fatigue of the eyes, blurred vision, itching and soreness of the eyes, cracks in the skin at the corners of the mouth, purplish red appearance of the lips  and tongue, and eczema.

# Effectsofexcess.Symptomsofexcessintakeofriboflavinhavenotbeenclearlyelucidated.

# '''Effects of excess'''. Symptoms of excess in take of riboflavin have not been clearly elucidated.

===== Niacin =====

===== Niacin =====

# Discovery. Niacin deficiency disease, called pellagra, was written about hundreds of years ago. It was not until the 20th century, however, that this disease was related to a dietary deficiency. This took place when a researcher placed subjects on a diet identical to that which caused pellagra-type symptoms in certain groups of people in the South. When these symptoms occurred in the experimental subjects, the researcher concluded that pellagra is a deficiency disease. Soon after, other scientists found that niacin was the missing link.

# '''Discovery'''. Niacin deficiency disease, called pellagra, was written about hundreds of years ago. It was not until the 20th century, however, that this disease was related to a dietary deficiency. This took place when a researcher placed subjects on a diet identical to that which caused pellagra-type symptoms in certain groups of people in the South. When these symptoms occurred in the experimental subjects, the researcher concluded that pellagra is a deficiency disease. Soon after, other scientists found that niacin was the missing link.

# Measurement. Amounts of niacin are expressed in milligrams.

# '''Measurement'''. Amounts of niacin are expressed in milligrams.

# Chemistry. This important B vitamin (called B3 by some nutritionists) is more stable than most other B vitamins; it is not easily destroyed by heat, light or exposure to oxy-  gen.

# '''Chemistry'''. This important B vitamin (called B3 by some nutritionists) is more stable than most other B vitamins; it is not easily destroyed by heat, light or exposure to oxygen.

# Physiology. Not all the niacin needed by the body need be supplied as niacin. Trypto-  phan, an amino acid (subunit of protein), is easily converted by the body into niacin. Therefore, to have a niacin deficiency, the diet must be deficient in both niacin and tryp- tophan.

# '''Physiology'''. Not all the niacin needed by the body need be supplied as niacin. Tryptophan, an amino acid (subunit of protein), is easily converted by the body into niacin. Therefore, to have a niacin deficiency, the diet must be deficient in both niacin and tryptophan.

# Functions. Niacin is intimately involved in cellular metabolic reactions which release energy from the oxidation (“burning”) of fats, carbohydrates and proteins. In this func- tion it is quite similar to vitamins Bl and B2, but niacin cannot substitute for or be re- placed by other B vitamins.

# '''Functions'''. Niacin is intimately involved in cellular metabolic reactions which release energy from the oxidation (“burning”) of fats, carbohydrates and proteins. In this function it is quite similar to vitamins Bl and B2, but niacin cannot substitute for or be replaced by other B vitamins.

# Requirements. The requirements for niacin are about 5-10 mg per day for infants and children and 15-20 mg per day for adults.

# '''Requirements'''. The requirements for niacin are about 5-10 mg per day for infants and children and 15-20 mg per day for adults.

# Sources.Therearemanysourcesofniacininthediet:greenleafyvegetables,potatoes, nuts arid seeds, to name a few.

# '''Sources'''. There are many sources of niacin in the diet: green leafy vegetables, potatoes, nuts arid seeds, to name a few.

# Effectsofdeficiency.Deficiencyofniacinleadstodevelopmentofpellagra.Thisdisease involves the gastrointestinal tract, skin and nervous system. Common symptoms include fatigue; headache; weight loss; backache; appetite loss; poor general health; red sore tongue; sore throat and mouth; lack of hydrochloric acid in the stomach (which results in anemia from vitamin B12 deficiency); nausea; vomiting; diarrhea; red, swollen and cracked skin; confusion; dizziness; poor memory and, in advanced cases, severe mental illness. If the diet contains sufficient amounts of niacin, and if a person suffers from any of the aforementioned symptoms, taking extra niacin will have no beneficial effect.

# '''Effects of deficiency'''. Deficiency of niacin leads to development of pellagra. This disease involves the gastrointestinal tract, skin and nervous system. Common symptoms include fatigue; headache; weight loss; backache; appetite loss; poor general health; red sore tongue; sore throat and mouth; lack of hydrochloric acid in the stomach (which results in anemia from vitamin B12 deficiency); nausea; vomiting; diarrhea; red, swollen and cracked skin; confusion; dizziness; poor memory and, in advanced cases, severe mental illness. If the diet contains sufficient amounts of niacin, and if a person suffers from any of the aforementioned symptoms, taking extra niacin will have no beneficial effect.

# Effects of excess. Intake of excess niacin has been found to cause liver damage, high levels of blood sugar, unsafe levels of uric acid in the bloodstream, and gastrointestinal distress (“stomachache”).

# Effects of excess. Intake of excess niacin has been found to cause liver damage, high levels of blood sugar, unsafe levels of uric acid in the bloodstream, and gastrointestinal distress (“stomachache”).

===== Vitamin B6 =====

===== Vitamin B6 =====

# Discovery.AdeficiencyofvitaminB6,orpyridoxine,wasfirstproducedinanimalsin 1926. In. 1938, this vitamin was isolated from food and identified. In 1939, scientists synthesized it in the laboratory.

# '''Discovery'''. A deficiency of vitamin B6, or pyridoxine, was first produced in animals in 1926. In. 1938, this vitamin was isolated from food and identified. In 1939, scientists synthesized it in the laboratory.

# Measurement. Amounts of vitamin B6 are expressed in micrograms or milligrams.

# '''Measurement'''. Amounts of vitamin B6 are expressed in micrograms or milligrams.

# Chemistry. Vitamin B6 is easily destroyed by light but is somewhat stable to heat.

# '''Chemistry'''. Vitamin B6 is easily destroyed by light but is somewhat stable to heat.

# Physiology and functions. Vitamin B6, sometimes referred to as pyridoxine, is deeply  involved in the metabolism of protein. When amino acids (subunits of protein) are con- verted into other substances (such as tryptophan to niacin), vitamin B6 is often needed. Also, when non-protein substances are converted into amino acids, vitamin B6 is often needed.

# '''Physiology and functions'''. Vitamin B6, sometimes referred to as pyridoxine, is deeply  involved in the metabolism of protein. When amino acids (subunits of protein) are converted into other substances (such as tryptophan to niacin), vitamin B6 is often needed. Also, when non-protein substances are converted into amino acids, vitamin B6 is often needed.

# Requirements.Infantsandchildrenrequireabout.5-1mgofvitaminB6perday.Adults need about 2 mg per day.

# '''Requirements'''. Infants and children require about 5-1 mg of vitamin B6 per day. Adults need about 2 mg per day.

# Sources. Vegetables are the main source of vitamin B6 in the diet.

# '''Sources'''. Vegetables are the main source of vitamin B6 in the diet.

# Effects of deficiency. Deficiency of vitamin B6 leads to problems in the skin, nervous system and blood in animals. It has been difficult for researchers to produce any defi- ciency in adult humans. In extreme experimental situations, skin disease has resulted in  adults from a vitamin B6 deficiency.

# '''Effects of deficiency'''. Deficiency of vitamin B6 leads to problems in the skin, nervous system and blood in animals. It has been difficult for researchers to produce any deficiency in adult humans. In extreme experimental situations, skin disease has resulted in  adults from a vitamin B6 deficiency.

# Effects of excess. Generalized symptoms of toxicity (poisoning) have been recorded in  rats upon intake of excess vitamin B6. Future research will certainly find damage in hu- man beings from intake of excess vitamin B6.

# '''Effects of excess'''. Generalized symptoms of toxicity (poisoning) have been recorded in  rats upon intake of excess vitamin B6. Future research will certainly find damage in human beings from intake of excess vitamin B6.

===== Pantothenic Acid =====

===== Pantothenic Acid =====

# Discovery.Pantothenicacidwasfirstisolatedin1938.Twoyearslaterresearcherssyn- thesized this vitamin in the laboratory.

# '''Discovery'''. Pantothenic acid was first isolated in 1938. Two years later researchers synthesized this vitamin in the laboratory.

# Measurement. Pantothenic acid is measured in milligrams.

# '''Measurement'''. Pantothenic acid is measured in milligrams.

# Chemistry. It is relatively stable, yet significant amounts are lost in cooking.

# '''Chemistry'''. It is relatively stable, yet significant amounts are lost in cooking.

# Physiologyandfunctions.PantothenicacidispartofcoenzymeA,anorganicsubstance which plays a critical role in many cellular metabolic pathways.

# '''Physiology and functions'''. Pantothenic acid is part of coenzyme A, an organic substance which plays a critical role in many cellular metabolic pathways.

# Requirements.Fourtosevenmgofpantothenicacidperdaywillfulfillthebody’sneeds  in both adults and children.

# '''Requirements'''. Four to seven mg of pantothenic acid per day will fulfill the body’s needs in both adults and children.

# Sources. Sources of pantothenic acid include fruits, vegetables, sprouted legumes and  grains.

# '''Sources'''. Sources of pantothenic acid include fruits, vegetables, sprouted legumes and  grains.

# Effects of deficiency. A deficiency of pantothenic acid has been observed only in lab-  oratory animals. This vitamin is widely available in common foods so that deficiency outside of the laboratory is unlikely. Symptoms of deficiency include vomiting, fatigue, a feeling of generalized sickness, pain in the abdomen, burning cramps, personality changes and blood abnormalities.

# '''Effects of deficiency.''' A deficiency of pantothenic acid has been observed only in laboratory animals. This vitamin is widely available in common foods so that deficiency outside of the laboratory is unlikely. Symptoms of deficiency include vomiting, fatigue, a feeling of generalized sickness, pain in the abdomen, burning cramps, personality changes and blood abnormalities.

# Effects of excess. Diarrhea is the only symptom thus far shown to result when excess pantothenic acid is taken.

# '''Effects of excess'''. Diarrhea is the only symptom thus far shown to result when excess pantothenic acid is taken.

===== Biotin =====

===== Biotin =====

# Discovery.Thediscoveryofbiotinwasmadewhenlargequantitiesofraweggswerefed to animals before World War II. Scientists found that raw egg whites contain avidin, a substance that inactivates biotin. The diet high in raw eggs therefore led to development of deficiency symptoms in animals.

# '''Discovery'''. The discovery of biotin was made when large quantities of raw eggs were fed to animals before World War II. Scientists found that raw egg whites contain avidin, a substance that inactivates biotin. The diet high in raw eggs therefore led to development of deficiency symptoms in animals.

# Measurement. Amounts of biotin are expressed in micrograms.

# '''Measurement'''. Amounts of biotin are expressed in micrograms.

# Chemistry. This vitamin is stable to heat and light but is sensitive to oxygen.

# '''Chemistry'''. This vitamin is stable to heat and light but is sensitive to oxygen.

# Physiologyandfunctions.Thebodyusesbiotinascoenzymesneededfornormalmetab-  olism of protein, carbohydrate and fat.

# '''Physiology and functions'''. The body uses biotin as coenzymes needed for normal metabolism of protein, carbohydrate and fat.

# Requirements. The requirement for biotin is about 150 micrograms per day for adults.

# '''Requirements'''. The requirement for biotin is about 150 micrograms per day for adults.

# Sources.Nutsandseedsarehighinbiotin.Anotherexcellentsourceissproutedlegumes.

# '''Sources'''. Nuts and seeds are high in biotin. Another excellent source is sprouted legumes.

# Effectsofdeficiency.Biotindeficiencyisproducedonlywhenmanyraweggsarecon-  sumed. Symptoms which develop include skin problems, fatigue, muscle pain, lack of appetite, nausea and blood abnormalities.

# '''Effects of deficiency'''. Biotin deficiency is produced only when many raw eggs are consumed. Symptoms which develop include skin problems, fatigue, muscle pain, lack of appetite, nausea and blood abnormalities.

# Effects of excess. The effects of excess biotin have not yet been described.

# '''Effects of excess'''. The effects of excess biotin have not yet been described.

===== Vitamin B12 =====

===== Vitamin B12 =====

# Discovery.VitaminB12wasnotidentifieduntil1955.Longbefore,intheearly1920s, foods high in this vitamin (such as liver) were used in cases of pernicious anemia.

# '''Discovery'''. Vitamin B12 was not identified until 1955. Long before, in the early 1920's, foods high in this vitamin (such as liver) were used in cases of pernicious anemia.

# Measurement. Amounts of this vitamin are expressed in micrograms.

# '''Measurement'''. Amounts of this vitamin are expressed in micrograms.

# Chemistry.VitaminB12isnotdamagedbyheat,butitisinactivatedbylight.Verylittle  is lost in cooking.

# '''Chemistry'''. Vitamin B12 is not damaged by heat, but it is inactivated by light. Very little is lost in cooking.

# Physiology. The physiology of vitamin B12 is complex. To be aborbed into the blood- stream, vitamin B12 must combine with an organic substance secreted by the stomach called intrinsic factor. The resultant complex can then be absorbed only at the far end of the small intestine, the terminal ileum. Disease of the stomach often results in deficien- cy of intrinsic factor. This condition, not a dietary deficiency of vitamin B12, is called pernicious anemia.

# '''Physiology'''. The physiology of vitamin B12 is complex. To be absorbed into the blood-stream, vitamin B12 must combine with an organic substance secreted by the stomach called intrinsic factor. The resultant complex can then be absorbed only at the far end of the small intestine, the terminal ileum. Disease of the stomach often results in deficiency of intrinsic factor. This condition, not a dietary deficiency of vitamin B12, is called pernicious anemia.

# Functions.AllcellsinthebodyneedvitaminB12tofunctionnormally,butcertaintis- sues need more of this vitamin than do others. These include the gastrointestinal tract, nervous system and bone marrow (where blood cells are produced).

# '''Functions'''. All cells in the body need vitamin B 12 to function normally, but certain tissues need more of this vitamin than do others. These include the gastrointestinal tract, nervous system and bone marrow (where blood cells are produced).

# Requirements.Infantsandchildrenneedabout.5-2megofvitaminB12perday,withthe larger amounts needed in later years. Adults need about 3 meg per day; 1 meg additional is recommended for pregnant and lactating women.

# '''Requirements'''. Infants and children need about .5-2 meg of vitamin B12 per day, with the larger amounts needed in later years. Adults need about 3 meg per day; 1 meg additional is recommended for pregnant and lactating women.

# Sources. Vitamin B12 should perhaps be called the “vegetarian’s nemesis,” since stan- dard nutrition teaches that it is only present in animal foods (meats, eggs, dairy products) and that none is found in vegetables, fruits, seeds, nuts, sprouted legumes or sprouted grains. Yet vitamin B12 is produced by bacteria that are so widely prevalent in nature that many or most vegetarian foods contain small amounts of vitamin B12. Also, scien- tific evidence has shown that bacteria in the human intestine can produce vitamin B12. Although vegetarians often have low blood levels of vitamin B12, there has almost nev- er been a well-documented case of a vegetarian who was sick from a dietary vitamin B12 deficiency. Therefore, there is no need for the subject of vitamin B12 to be a “veg- etarian’s nemesis.”

# '''Sources'''. Vitamin B12 should perhaps be called the “vegetarian’s nemesis,” since standard nutrition teaches that it is only present in animal foods (meats, eggs, dairy products) and that none is found in vegetables, fruits, seeds, nuts, sprouted legumes or sprouted grains. Yet vitamin B12 is produced by bacteria that are so widely prevalent in nature that many or most vegetarian foods contain small amounts of vitamin B12. Also, scientific evidence has shown that bacteria in the human intestine can produce vitamin B12. Although vegetarians often have low blood levels of vitamin B12, there has almost never been a well-documented case of a vegetarian who was sick from a dietary vitamin B12 deficiency. Therefore, there is no need for the subject of vitamin B12 to be a “vegetarian’s nemesis.”

# Effectsofdeficiency.WhenthebodyhasapoorsupplyofvitaminB12,perniciousane- mia will result. Fewer red blood cells are formed in the bone marrow. Advanced cases of vitamin B12 deficiency show nervous system disease characterized by “pins and nee- dles” sensations in the hands and feet, poor balance and mental depression.

# '''Effects of deficiency'''. When the body has a poor supply of vitamin B12, pernicious anemia will result. Fewer red blood cells are formed in the bone marrow. Advanced cases of vitamin B12 deficiency show nervous system disease characterized by “pins and needles” sensations in the hands and feet, poor balance and mental depression.

# Effects of excess. The effect of taking too much vitamin B12 has not been described.  

# '''Effects of excess'''. The effect of taking too much vitamin B12 has not been described.

===== Folic Acid =====

===== Folic Acid =====